middle_lit

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 * Can parents’ involvement in their children’s education help to raise literacy levels? Do parents of urban teens have the resources to help their kids?**


 * __Literature Review__**

Much of the research on literacy levels of students in urban school systems focuses on early childhood interventions as predictors of literacy achievement. Studies positively correlate first grade literacy levels to familial factors including reading to infants beginning at 6 months of age and maternal expectations for reading success. Clearly reading readiness and ability are factors in elementary learning achievement (Baynar, Nazil, et al, 1994). Is there a ceiling effect to the results of early interventions? Farkas has gone on to say that this early achievement is in fact a predictor of later literacy, and that “low-income children begin first grade approximately one year below middle-class children…so that by twelfth grade it [their ability] is at the eighth grade level” (2000,p.55).

In elementary school, children are taught literacy through "reading and writing skills." By middle school, they are no longer instructed in a separate class format, but are rather taught through reading in and across the content area in the school curriculum. Parent involvement dramatically declines in the years after elementary school, at a time when these students likely need it the most (Hollifield, 1994).

Perhaps there are greater predictors for adult literacy beyond just early literacy experiences. Can parents truly make a difference in their children's literacy levels while they are in middle or junior high school by encouraging literacy activities at home?

According to the National Institute for Literacy, “approximately two-thirds of eighth and twelfth grade students read at less than the ‘proficient’ level, as described by the 2005 National Assessment for Educational Progress” (National Institute for Literacy).

“Conventional literacy assessments were based on the measurement of abilities to read and write. Contemporary assessments of literacy measure the ability to negotiate some common literacy-dependent tasks.” (Baydar, Nazil, et al, p. 11). Literacy may now be defined as "communicative competence in particular contexts" (Hinchman and Moje, 1998). Thus, there has been a shift from traditional pedagogical reading methods to whole language studies. This shift toward document literacy recognizes the social impact literacy has in that it focuses on skills that are crucial to fulfill one’s role as a member of society. Adult literacy assessments have three focus areas: prose, document, and quantitative (Wagner; Venezky, 1999). The National Institute for Literacy states that several national and state organizations within the US, including the National Governor’s Association, have identified Level 3 proficiency [score of 276-325 on International Adult Literacy Survey] as a minimum standard for success in today’s labor market” (National Institute for Literacy).

Yet the latest assessment reveals only half of the US population aged 16-65 years has reached Level 3. In fact, the National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) conducted in 1993 indicates that one quarter of American adults with an average of 10 years of schooling had only acquired fourth-grade literacy skills or lower (Wagner and Venezky, 1999). Low literacy levels are linked to low productivity, low earnings, high unemployment and welfare dependency, and are of national concern (Baydar, Nazli, et al).

In fact, some states and individual school systems have initiated programs to foster partnerships with parents to combat the issues of illiteracy and other educational concerns. In families with low SES (socio-economic status), one of the concerns is the likelihood of low literacy levels of the parents, which can be a major barrier to supporting literacy activities in the home. Such partnership programs are using holistic methods to increase the literacy levels of the parents, so that the parents can support their families economically and educationally (Hollifield, 1994).

What constitutes //parent involvement//? Baker and Soden (1998) discuss findings from existing research which supports the notion that involvement in their children's formal schooling is crucial to their academic success. They also cite several limits to previous research findings, among them being an inconsistency in what is considered //parental involvement//.

In general, a positive correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement/literacy exists in numerous studies focused on middle school students. Parental involvement, and academic achievement, however may be defined slightly differently in these studies. Parental involvement characteristics which were mentioned include both home based and school based, including; discussing school activities at home, monitoring out of school activities, having contacts with school staff, and volunteering and attending (Ho-Sui-Chu, 1996). Other general areas of parental involvement mentioned were having expectations for student performance, communication about school related matters, and supervision of activities such as TV. and homework, participation in school activities and general parent involvement (Fan, Xitao, et. al. 1999). One idea that is emphasized repeatedly throughout studies is “that home, school, and community act as overlapping spheres of influence on children” (Epstein, 2000). Student achievement has been defined in ways such as grade point average, test scores on specific subjects including reading, social studies, science and math, promotion, retention, and teacher rating (Fan, Xitao et. al. 1999).

(Keith and Keith, 1993) conducted a study which also supported the idea that parental involvement positively affects students’ achievement in the middle grades. Parental involvement was defined similarly to previous studies including educational aspirations, parent-child communication, amount of home structure and participation in school activities. This information was drawn from parent surveys. Student achievement was also measured similarly on tests in reading, math, science and social studies, and used NELS data. In this study, the strongest influence on students was their previous grades, those doing well previously continued to do well. The second most influential factor was parent involvement as defined by aspirations and communications. It was also “found that children of involved parents spend considerably more time doing homework and reading” (Keith and Keith, 1993). The study also found that parents with higher income were more involved than parents with lower income.

Similar results were found in a study that involved an interactive homework program called Teachers Involving Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS). This program was developed by researchers at Johns Hopkins University and teachers in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia and utilized sixth and eight grade students in two of the lowest achieving, predominantly African American middle schools in Baltimore, Maryland. The study explored whether TIPS interactive homework, where parents monitor, interact, and support their children in their home learning improved students English Language Arts grades and writing skills over one year. The results showed that parents’ participation in TIPS added significantly to students writing scores and language arts grades as the year progressed (Epstein, 1997).

In the Ho Sui-Chu study, two purposes were identified. First it sought to clarify the different types of parent involvement and how they may vary within and among different schools. Secondly, it attempted to explore the relationship among parent involvement, family background, and student achievement. Four types of parent involvement were also identified, two home based and two school based. These included discussing school activities at home, monitoring out of school activities, having contacts with school staff, and volunteering and attending parent teacher conferences and other school events. Using information from National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS: 88) (24,599 eighth grade students, parents, and teachers) Ho Sui-Chu and Willms investigated whether involvement varied among students depending on family background, school, and school practices. Also studied was whether involvement varied depending on family income. Results showed that higher income families were slightly more involved in some ways, but on the whole the study “did NOT find that higher income parents and two parent families were more involved with their children’s education” (Ho Sui-Chu 1996). In terms of achievement, discussing school with children at home and helping students plan education programs had the greatest effect on student achievement (Ho Sui-Chu, 1996). Also, “participation in school had a small, but significant effect on reading achievement” (Ho Sui-Chu, 1996).

In 1995 a study conducted in an urban suburb of Sydney, Australia, The Talk of a Literacy Learner (TTALL), emphasized specific training of those parents interested in participating in their children’s literacy development (Cairney and Munsey, 1995). In this study parents were trained as literacy tutors in the school. In the next phase of the program parents were trained to become literacy trainers in the community. In this phase parents would introduce literacy strategies to other parents in the community in their own homes. This study highlighted the importance of literacy training for parents as well as the role of parents as literacy activists (i.e. training other parents to support their children’s literacy). Cairney and Munsey reported “qualitative gains in children’s literacy levels (1995). Children were less likely to find school work difficult and were more likely to choose higher level reading materials, an indication that the children had developed greater confidence in their reading and writing abilities (Cairney and Munsey, 1995).

A more recent study, also from Australia, noted the importance of “home – school congruence” (Lawson, 2000). The author of this study argued that parental involvement in literacy activities should be more than the school dictating literacy strategies to parents. The author contends that there may be certain strategies that parents develop and incorporate at home that are distinct from school based literacy strategies. Lawson asserts that parental insights on home based literacy strategies should be recognized.


 * Research Question** - Is there a statistically significant difference in literacy achievement, as measured by the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test//, of urban middle or junior high school students whose parents participate in //literacy activities// with students at home and those whose parents do not?


 * Hypothesis** (directional) - Students whose parents participate in //literacy activities// at home will show a statistically significant increase in literacy achievement, as measured by the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test//, over those students whose parents do not participate with them in literacy activities.


 * Hypothesis** (null) - There will be no statistically significant difference in literacy achievement, as measured by the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test//, between urban middle or junior high school students whose parents participate in //literacy activities// at home with them and those who do not.


 * __Methods__**

Quantitative Research Study

Two of the classes will be considered control groups. Two of the classes will be considered treatment groups.
 * Sample** – Forty (40) sixth grade urban middle school students from Boston participating in a six week ramp up math program during the summer. Students will be randomly assigned to equivalent groups of four classes of ten students each.


 * Independent variable / treatment** – Parents participating in //literacy activities//. For this study parents whose children were in the treatment group of the study agreed to participate in the program as well. Parents attended an orientation/training session in which the study and program were explained. Literacy coaches met with small groups of parents and lead a guided discussion about effective literacy strategies that could be incorporated at home. In accordance with Lawson (2000, see lit review) literacy coaches were advised to recognize parents' knowledge and experience with home based literacy building strategies. Parents were encouraged to use a mix of supportive literacy strategies and to keep a daily log of their activities.


 * Dependent variable** – literacy achievement (as measured by scores on //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test)//


 * Data Collection** – This is a quantitative study. Students will be pre-tested and post-tested with the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, Fourth Edition//. This is a norm-referenced reading achievement test. The tests will be administered individually. According to reviews in //The 16//th //Mental Measurements Yearbook,// the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test// passed through a rigorous standardization process that included 65,000 in a stratified sample. The reviewers note that there is “adequate evidence detail [was] presented to support the development of norms.” Both reviewers noted that the Fourth Edition contains adequate evidence to support both content and construct validity. Evidence for sufficient validity includes: the high score correlation with the Third Edition, strong validity indicators on the Third Edition, piloting, and careful procedures in developing the Fourth Edition, including input from teachers. The //Gates-MacGinitie// also rates high in terms of reliability. All tests and subtests that are being used in this study have test and subtest internal consistency levels with coefficient values at or above .90. (p. 401 from review). For the sixth grade level there were indicators of strong stability correlations with total test coefficient values at or above .88.


 * Data Analysis** - The means and standard deviations of the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test// scores will be reported separately for the treatment and control groups. The null hypothesis states that there is no true difference between the two means. This hypothesis will be tested with a //t// test using the .05 significance level.


 * __Validity and Reliability__**

Our quantitative study utilizes four groups of students; two experimental and two control groups. Our study is of a 6-week duration, which could add to the threat of testing, however, one control group will receive the pre-test and the other will not, thereby allowing us to account for and minimize the threat of testing to the validity of our data. Using two experimental groups allows us to minimize the impact of a specific teacher. The 6-week experimental period and necessary parental involvement minimize the threats of maturity and history. Utilizing a heavily researched instrument, the //Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test//, provides for greater validity of results. We hope that the 6-week duration is sufficient to demonstrate a statistically significant difference in reading achievement for those students in the experimental groups receiving the treatment of parental involvement.


 * __Strength of Design__**

In preparation for our research, we reviewed correlational studies of existing data, program evaluations, and a longitudinal study of a small convenience sample. In choosing to conduct a true experiment using the gold standard (random sampling and assignment to equivalent groups), we hope to add to the body of knowledge about parental involvement positively affecting urban middle school students' achievement. Because our samples were small, we hope our study will be replicated using larger groups.

Conversely, had we chosen to do a qualitative study, we would have compiled rich data on a small group of students in their environment. We would have had to identify high achieving urban middle school students for subjects. The young age of the subjects, and the need for informed consent from parents to complete a prolonged invasive study, along with our relative inexperience in conducting qualitative studies and the enormity of the task made our choice simple. Our limited resources were better used conducting a short-term quantitative study.


 * __References__**
 * __References__**

Baker, Amy J.L. and Soden, Laura M. (1998). The Challenges of Parent Involvement Research, ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, New York, NY. 6p. [ED 419 030].

Baydar, Nazil; and Others (1994). Early Warning Signs of Functional Illiteracy: Predictors in Childhood and Adolescence, Occasional Paper (OP94-01), [ED 372 186], 29p.; Reprinted from “Child Development” 64(3), 815-829, 1993.

Cairney, T.H., Munsie, L. (1995). Parent participation in literacy learning. The Reading Teacher, 48 (5), 392-403. [ED 498 787].

Epstein, Joyce L., and Sanders, Mavis G. (2000). Connecting Home School and Community: New Directions for Social Research. Handbook of the Sociology of Education. (285-306).

Epstein, Joyce L., Simon, Beth S., and Salinas, Karen Clark (1997). Involving Parents in Homework in the Middle Grades. Phi Delta Kappan Research Bulletin, 18, 4 pages.

Fan, Xitao;, Chen, Michael (1999-04-00). Parental Involvement on Students Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis.

Farkas, George (2000). Teaching Low-Income Children to Read at Grade Level, //Contemporary Society//, 29 (1), Utopian Visions: Engaged Sociologies for the 21st Century. 53-62

Hinchman, Kathleen A. and Moje, Elizabeth B.(1998) Locating the Social and Political in Secondary School Literacy, //Reading Research Quarterly//, 33(1) 117-128.

Hollifield, John H., Ed. (1994). High Schools Gear Up to Create Effective School and Family Partnerships, Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children’s Learning.; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 13 p. [ED 380-229].

Ho Sui-Chu, Esther, and Willms, J. Douglas (1996). Effects of Parental Involvement on Eighth Grade Achievement. Sociology of Education, 69,(2), 126-141

Henderson, Anne T.; Mapp, Karen L. (2002). A New Wave of Evidence; The Impact of school, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement. Annual Synthesis, 2002. Information Analyses.

Keith, Timothy Z., and Keith, Patricia B. (1993). Does Parental Involvement Affect Eighth Grade Student Achievement? Structural Analysis of National Data. School Psychology Review. (474-496).

Lawson, J. (2000, December). Be it ever so humble: Home-school congruence and literacy for poor kids. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Australian Association of Research in Education Sydney, Australia. [ED 451 515].

Leung, Jupian J.(1993). Children’s Attitudes toward Schoolwork and Perception of Parental Behaviors That Support Schoolwork, Wisconsin University, 20p.[ED 357 859].

National Institute for Literacy; Childhood, Adolescence, International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS), retrieved June 11, 2006 from: [|http://www.nifl.gov]

Wagner, Daniel J. and Venesky, Richard L., (1999). Adult Literacy: The Next Generation, //Educational Researcher//, 28(1),21-29. The use of wikispaces for this assignment was effective. The site itself was easy to use and an excellent place to hold a forum for our topics. It was helpful to see other research proposals in progress and the various comments that went along with them. Given the busy schedules of adult students and the stress involved in trying to coordinate schedules, the use of wikispaces alleviated what could have been a considerable burden. Instead the group was able to focus on the actual task at hand. Using the site for this assignment was a great experience. In the future, I would like to develop a way to integrate this particular piece of technology into an assignment with my high school classes. - Shannon

I also feel that wikispaces was convenient, informative and beneficial to everyone in the class. We were all able to share information with other groups, discuss questions and comments, and collaborate effectively. As a full time teacher I found this format invaluable in terms of time and information sharing. I will definitely consider utilizing wikispaces in my own teaching, as well as for a resource. -Emily

Literature Review / References – Emily and Lucy Research Question, Hypotheses, Sample, Data Collection & Analysis – Shannon Validity / Reliability – Lucy Strength of Design - Lucy

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